Congenital malaria: Is it really rare?
Keywords:
congenital malaria, Plasmodium falciparum, pregnancy, hepatosplenomegaly
Abstract
Congenital malaria is acquired from the mother prenatally or perinatally. In African countries congenital malaria is mainly caused by Plasmodium falciparum while in Asia and Europe, P.vivax is common. Postulated mechanism for congenital transmission of malaria parasites include maternal transfusion into the foetal circulation either at the time of delivery or during pregnancy, direct penetration through the chorionic villi or penetration through premature separation of placenta. Signs and symptoms include fever, restlessness, pallor, jaundice, poor feeding, vomiting, diarrhoea, cyanosis, hepatosplenomegaly and convulsions mostly between 10 and 30 days of age. Examination of peripheral blood by thick smear using light microscopy (LM) is the gold standard. Treatment of the congenital vivax malaria requires a blood schizonticide, like chloroquine. However, additional efforts should be made to establish safety profile, the correct dosage and formulation of Artemisinin-based combination therapy(ACT) in infants with a body weight of less than 5 kg.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
1. Falade C, Mokuolu O, Okafor H, Orogade A, Falade A, Adedoyin O, Oguonu T, Aisha M, Hamer DH, Callahan MV. Epidemiology of congenital malaria in Nigeria: a multi-centre study. Trop Med Int Health. 2007;12:1279–1287. [PubMed]
2. Mukhtar M. The growing incidence of neonatal malaria–a situational review in developing countries. Niger J Med. 2007;16:25–30. [PubMed]
3. Lawn JE, Cousens S, Zupan J. 4 million neonatal deaths: when? Where? Why? Lancet. 2005;365:891–900. [PubMed]
4. Sacarlal J, Nhacolo AQ, Sigauque B, Nhalungo DA, Abacassamo F, Sacoor CN, Aide P, Machevo S, Nhampossa T, Macete EV, Bassat Q, David C, Bardají A, Letang E, Saúte F, Aponte JJ, Thompson R, Alonso PL. A 10 year study of the cause of death in children under 15 years in Manhica. Mozambique. BMC Publ Health. 2009;9:67.
5. Bardaji A, Sigauque B, Sanz S, Maixenchs M, Ordi J, Aponte JJ, Mabunda S, Alonso PL, Menéndez C. Impact of malaria at the end of pregnancy on infant mortality and morbidity. J Infect Dis. 2011;203:691–699. [PubMed]
6. Abdullah S, Adazu K, Masanja H, Diallo D, Hodgson A, Ilboudo-Sanogo E, Nhacolo A, Owusu-Agyei S, Thompson R, Smith T, Binka FN. Patterns of age-specific mortality in children in endemic areas of sub-Saharan Africa. AmJTrop Med Hyg. 2007;77:99–105. [PubMed]
7. Feigin,Cherry,Demmler,Kaplan. Congenital malaria .Text book of Pediatric Infectious Diseases.5th ed;2:2718.
8. Menendez C. Malaria during pregnancy: A priority area of malaria research and control. Parasitol Today. 1995;11:178–183. [PubMed]
9. Rogerson SJ, Hvjjd L, Duffy PE, Leke RFG, Taylor D. Malaria in pregnancy: pathogenesis and immunity. Lancet. 2007;7:105–116. [PubMed]
10. Sierez JY, De Pontual L, Poilane I, Ledeur F, Haouchine D, Hassine Lac. Congenital malaria as result of Plasmodium malariae in an infant born to a HIV-seropositive woman. Trop Med. 2005;65:477–81. [PubMed]
11. Fischer PR. Malaria and Newborn. J Trop Pediatr. 2003;49:132–134. [PubMed]
12. Ibhanesebhor SE. Clinical characteristics of neonatal malaria. J Trop Pediatr. 2005;65:477–81.
13. Kliegman RM,Behrman RE,Jenson HB, Stanton BF. Congenital malaria. Nelson textbook of Pediatrics.2008;18:1479.
14. Hyacinth I. Hyacinth, Stephen O, Christopher S. Yilgwan. Summary Description of 24 Cases of Neonatal Malaria Seen at a Tertiary Health Center in Nigeria. Iran J Pediatr. 2012; 22(1): 87–91.
15. Romand S, Bouree P, Gelez J, Bader-Meunier B, Bisaro F, Dommergues JP. Congenital malaria. Infected twins born to an asymptomatic mother. Presse Medicale. 1994;23(17):797–800. [PubMed]
16. Fischer PR. Malaria and new born. J Trop Pediatr. 2003;49:132–134. [PubMed]
17. Bassey AE, Ejezie GC, Alaribe AA, Useh MF, Udo JJ, Ekanem AD. Congenital malaria in Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. Mary Slessor J Med. 2005;5:37–40.
18. Obiajunwa PO, Owo JA, Adodu OO. Prevalence of congenital malaria in Ile-Ife, Nigeria. J Trop Pediatr. 2005;51:219–222. [PubMed]
19. Remington JS, Klainm JO. Infectious Diseases of the Fetus and Newborn Infant. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 1995. pp. 765–768.
20. Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, Parise MC, Menendez C. The burden of malaria in pregnancy in malaria endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001;64:28–35. [PubMed]
21. World Health Organization The African Malaria Report 2003. 2003. http://www.rbm.who.int/amd2003/amr/toc.htm
22. Price RN, Tjitra E, Guerra CA, Yeung S, White NJ, Anstey NM. Vivax malaria: neglected and not benign. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007;77:79–87. [PubMed]
23. Lesko CR, Arguin PM, Newman RD. Congenital malaria in the United States: a review of cases from 1966 to 2005. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007;161(11):1062-7. [PubMed]
24. Desai M, Kuile FO, Nosten F, McGready R, Asamoa K, Brabin B, Newman RD. Epidemiology and burden of malaria in pregnancy. The Lancet Infectious diseases.2007;7(2):93-104. [PubMed]
25. Veronica DP, Maurizio G, Alberto M, Vania S, Antonio R, Francesco C. Congenital Plasmodium vivax malaria mimicking neonatal sepsis: a case report.Malar J. 2010; 9: 63. [PubMed]
26. Lee WW, Singh M, Tan CL. A recent case of congenital malaria in Singapore. Singapore Med J. 1996;37:541–543. [PubMed]
27. Wivanitkit V. Congenital malaria in Thailand, an appraisal of previous cases. Pediatrics Intnl. 2006;48:562–565. [PubMed]
28. Castellanos ME, Bardají A, Menegon M, Mayor A, Desai M, Severini C, Menéndez C, Padilla N. Plasmodium vivax congenital malaria in an area of very low endemicity in Guatemala: implications for clinical and epidemiological surveillance in a malaria elimination context. Malar J. 2012 ;11(1):411.
29. Sotimehin SA, Runsewe-Abiodun TI, Oladapo OT, Njokanma OF, Olanrewaju DM. Possible risk factors for congenital malaria at a tertiary care hospital in Sagamu, Ogun state, southwest Nigeria. J Trop Pediatr. 2008;54(5):313–20. [PubMed]
30. Nosten F, McGready R, Simpson JA, Thwai KL, Balkan S, Cho Thei, Hkirijaroen L, Looareesuwan S, White NJ. Effects of Plasmodium vivax malaria in pregnancy. Lancet. 1999;354:546–549. [PubMed]
31. De Silva DHG, Mendis MN, Premratne UN, Jayatilleke S, Soyza PE. Congenital malaria due to Plasmodium vivax: a case report from Sri Lanka. Trans of the Royal Soc of Trop Med and Hyg.1982;76(1):33-35. [PubMed]
32. Miller IJ, Telford SR III. Placental malaria. N Eng J Med. 1996;335:98. [PubMed]
33.Wilson RJ, Pasvol G, Weatherall DJ. Invasion and growth of Plasmodium falciparum in different types of human erythrocyte. Bull World Health Organ. 1977;55:179–186. [PubMed]
34. Kakkilaya BS. Malaria and pregnancy. 2009, http://www.malariasite.com
35. Thapa BR, Narang A, Bhakoo ON. Neonatal malaria: A clinical study of congenital and transfusional malaria. J Trop Paediatr. 1987;33(5):266–68. [PubMed]
36. Voittier G, Arsac M, Farnoux C, Mariani-Kurdjian P, Baud O, Aujard Y. Congenital malaria in neonates: two case report and review of literature. Paediatrica. 2008;97:500–512.
37. Lesko CR, Arguin PM, Newman RD. Congenital malaria in the United States. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007;161:1062–1067. [PubMed]
38. Baspinar O, Bayraktaroglu Z, Karsligil T, Bayram A, Coscun Y. A rare case of anemia and thrombocytopenia in a newborn: congenital malaria. Turk Journ Pediatr. 2006;48:63–658. [PubMed]
39. D Alessandro U, Ubben D, Hamed K, Ceesay SJ, Okebe J, Taal M, Lama EK, Keita M, Koivogui L, Nahum A, Bojang K, Sonko AA, Lalya HF, Brabin B. Malaria in infants aged less than six months - is it an area of unmet medical need? Malar J. 2012 ;11(1):400. [PubMed]
40. Hagmann S, Khanna K, Niazi M, Purswani M, Robins EB. Congenital malaria, an important differential diagnosis to consider when evaluating febrile infants of immigrant mothers. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2007;23(5):326-9.
41. Valecha N, Bhatia S, Mehta S, Sukla B, Dash AP. Congenital malaria with atypical presentation: A case report from low transmission area in India.Malar J. 2007; 6: [PubMed]
42. Balaka B, Agbere AD, Bonkoungou P, Kessie K, Assimadi K, Agbo K. Congenital malarial disease due to Plasmodium falciparum in high-infection-risk newborn.Arch Pediatr. 2000;7(3):243-8. [PubMed]
43. Patwari A. Aneja S, Berry AM. Ghosh S. Neonatal mailairiai-a clinico-haematological profile. Itidiati Pediatr 1978;15/10:847-9. [PubMed]
44. Yeager AS. In: Rcmington JS. Klcin JO, cds. Infecious diseases of the fetus and newborn 2nd ed. Philaidelphia: W B Saunders. 1984;563-6.
45. M Davenport. Neonatal malaria and obstructive jaundice.Departmnent of Paediatric Surgery, Leeds General Infirmary.Archives of Disease in Childhood, 1986;61:516.
46. Hewson MP, Simmer K, Blackmore T. Congenital malaria in a preterm infant. J Paediatr Child Health. 2003;39(9):713-5. [PubMed]
47. Poespoprodjo JR, Fobia W, Kenangalem E, Lampah DA, Hasanuddin A, Warikar N, Sugiarto P, Tjitra E, Anstey NM, Price RN. Vivax malaria: a major cause of morbidity in early infancy. Clin Infect Dis. 2009 ;48(12):1704-12. [PubMed]
48. López-Antuñano F. In: Diagnóstico de malaria. López-Antuñano FJ, Schmunis G, editors. Washington DC: WHO-PAHO; 1988. pp. 39–50.
49. Makler M, Palmer C, Ager A. A review of practical techniques for the diagnosis of malaria. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1998;92:419–433. [PubMed]
50. PAHO Pan American Health Organization. Malaria in the Americas. PAHO Bull. 1996;17:1–18.
51. Ivón M. C, Mary L. U, Carolina C, Alexander FG, Jaime CF, and Amanda M. Diagnosis of Gestational, Congenital, and Placental Malaria in Colombia: Comparison of the Efficacy of Microscopy, Nested Polymerase Chain Reaction, and Histopathology. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2011; 84(6): 929–935.
52. Snounou G, Viriyakosol S, Zhu X, Jarra W, Pinheiro L, Do Rosario V, Thaithong S, Brown K. High sensitivity of detection of human malaria parasites by the use of nested polymerase chain reaction. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 1993;61:315–320. [PubMed]
53. Hanscheid T. Diagnosis of malaria: a review of alternatives to conventional microscopy. Clin Lab Haematol. 1999;21:235–245. [PubMed]
54. Rogerson S, Mkundika P, Kanjala M. Diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum malaria at delivery: comparison of blood film preparation methods and of blood films with histology. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:1370–1374. [PubMed]
55. Bulmer J, Rasheed F, Francis N, Morrison L, Greenwoods B. Placental malaria. I. Pathological classification. Histopathology. 1993;22:211–218. [PubMed]
56. Bulmer J, Rasheed F, Morrison L, Francis N, Greenwood B. Placental malaria. II. A semi-quantitative investigation of the pathological features. Histopathology. 1993;22:219–225.
57. Lucchi N, Demas A, Narayanan J, Sumari D, Kabanywanyi A, Kachur S, Barnwell J, Udhayakumar V. Real-time fluorescence loop mediated isothermal amplification for the diagnosis of malaria. PLoS One. 2010;5:e13733. [PubMed]
58. Han E, Watanabe R, Sattabongkot J, Khuntirat B, Sirichaisinthop J, Iriko H, Jin L, Takeo S, Tsuboi T. Detection of four Plasmodium species by genus- and species-specific Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification for clinical diagnosis. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45:2521–2528.
59. Paris D, Imwong M, Faiz A, Hasan M, Yunus E, Silamut K, Lee S, Day N, Dondorp A. Loop-mediated isothermal PCR (LAMP) for the diagnosis of falciparum malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007;77:972–976. [PubMed]
60. Poon L, Wong B, Ma E, Chan Q, Chow L, Abeyewickreme W, Tangpukdee N, Yuen K, Guan Y, Looareesuwan S, Peiris J. Sensitive and inexpensive molecular test for falciparum malaria: detecting Plasmodium falciparum DNA directly from heat-treated blood by loop-mediated isothermal amplification. Clin Chem. 2006;52:303–306.
61. Snounou G. Rapid, sensitive and cheap molecular diagnosis of malaria: is microscopy on the way out? Future Microbiol. 2007;2:477–480. [PubMed]
62. Hindi RD, Azimi PH. Congenital malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum. Pediatrics. 1980;66(6):977-9. [PubMed]
63. Shulman CE, Dorman EK. Importance and prevention of malaria in pregnancy.Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2003;97(1):30-5. [PubMed]
64. World Malaria Report (WHO). 2011;35.
65. GHS/NMCP/Global Fund/JHPIEGO, author. Intermittent Preventive Treatment (IPT) of malaria in pregnancy. 2005 May;29–31.
66. Fischer PR, Nyirjesy P, Toko RM. Congenital malaria in twins. West J Med. 1995;163:395–396. [PubMed]
67. Hailegiorgis B, Girma S, Melaku Z, Teshi T, Demeke L, Gebresellasie S, Yadeta D, Tibesso G, Whitehurst N, Yamo E, Carter J, Reithinger R. Laboratory malaria diagnostic capacity in health facilities in five administrative zones of oromia regional state. Ethiopia. Trop Med Int Health. 2010;15:1449–1457.
68. Ishengoma DR, Derua YA, Rwegoshora RT, Tenu F, Massaga JJ, Mboera LE, Magesa SM. The performance of health laboratories and the quality of malaria diagnosis in six districts of Tanzania. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2010;104:123–135. [PubMed]
69. Uneke CJ. Congenital Plasmodium falciparum malaria in sub-Saharan Africa: a rarity or frequent occurrence? Parasitol Res. 2007;101:835–842. [PubMed]
70. Joffe A., Jadavji T : Congenital malaria : A case report of a preventable disease.Pedatr.Infect.Dis.J. 1990; 9:522-523. [PubMed]
71. Olabisi A.,G.C.Ejezie,Friday A .Odey,Chioma M.Congenital malaria in Calabar,Nigeria:The molecular perspective.Am J Trop Med Hyg.2011;84(3):386-389.
2. Mukhtar M. The growing incidence of neonatal malaria–a situational review in developing countries. Niger J Med. 2007;16:25–30. [PubMed]
3. Lawn JE, Cousens S, Zupan J. 4 million neonatal deaths: when? Where? Why? Lancet. 2005;365:891–900. [PubMed]
4. Sacarlal J, Nhacolo AQ, Sigauque B, Nhalungo DA, Abacassamo F, Sacoor CN, Aide P, Machevo S, Nhampossa T, Macete EV, Bassat Q, David C, Bardají A, Letang E, Saúte F, Aponte JJ, Thompson R, Alonso PL. A 10 year study of the cause of death in children under 15 years in Manhica. Mozambique. BMC Publ Health. 2009;9:67.
5. Bardaji A, Sigauque B, Sanz S, Maixenchs M, Ordi J, Aponte JJ, Mabunda S, Alonso PL, Menéndez C. Impact of malaria at the end of pregnancy on infant mortality and morbidity. J Infect Dis. 2011;203:691–699. [PubMed]
6. Abdullah S, Adazu K, Masanja H, Diallo D, Hodgson A, Ilboudo-Sanogo E, Nhacolo A, Owusu-Agyei S, Thompson R, Smith T, Binka FN. Patterns of age-specific mortality in children in endemic areas of sub-Saharan Africa. AmJTrop Med Hyg. 2007;77:99–105. [PubMed]
7. Feigin,Cherry,Demmler,Kaplan. Congenital malaria .Text book of Pediatric Infectious Diseases.5th ed;2:2718.
8. Menendez C. Malaria during pregnancy: A priority area of malaria research and control. Parasitol Today. 1995;11:178–183. [PubMed]
9. Rogerson SJ, Hvjjd L, Duffy PE, Leke RFG, Taylor D. Malaria in pregnancy: pathogenesis and immunity. Lancet. 2007;7:105–116. [PubMed]
10. Sierez JY, De Pontual L, Poilane I, Ledeur F, Haouchine D, Hassine Lac. Congenital malaria as result of Plasmodium malariae in an infant born to a HIV-seropositive woman. Trop Med. 2005;65:477–81. [PubMed]
11. Fischer PR. Malaria and Newborn. J Trop Pediatr. 2003;49:132–134. [PubMed]
12. Ibhanesebhor SE. Clinical characteristics of neonatal malaria. J Trop Pediatr. 2005;65:477–81.
13. Kliegman RM,Behrman RE,Jenson HB, Stanton BF. Congenital malaria. Nelson textbook of Pediatrics.2008;18:1479.
14. Hyacinth I. Hyacinth, Stephen O, Christopher S. Yilgwan. Summary Description of 24 Cases of Neonatal Malaria Seen at a Tertiary Health Center in Nigeria. Iran J Pediatr. 2012; 22(1): 87–91.
15. Romand S, Bouree P, Gelez J, Bader-Meunier B, Bisaro F, Dommergues JP. Congenital malaria. Infected twins born to an asymptomatic mother. Presse Medicale. 1994;23(17):797–800. [PubMed]
16. Fischer PR. Malaria and new born. J Trop Pediatr. 2003;49:132–134. [PubMed]
17. Bassey AE, Ejezie GC, Alaribe AA, Useh MF, Udo JJ, Ekanem AD. Congenital malaria in Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. Mary Slessor J Med. 2005;5:37–40.
18. Obiajunwa PO, Owo JA, Adodu OO. Prevalence of congenital malaria in Ile-Ife, Nigeria. J Trop Pediatr. 2005;51:219–222. [PubMed]
19. Remington JS, Klainm JO. Infectious Diseases of the Fetus and Newborn Infant. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 1995. pp. 765–768.
20. Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, Parise MC, Menendez C. The burden of malaria in pregnancy in malaria endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001;64:28–35. [PubMed]
21. World Health Organization The African Malaria Report 2003. 2003. http://www.rbm.who.int/amd2003/amr/toc.htm
22. Price RN, Tjitra E, Guerra CA, Yeung S, White NJ, Anstey NM. Vivax malaria: neglected and not benign. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007;77:79–87. [PubMed]
23. Lesko CR, Arguin PM, Newman RD. Congenital malaria in the United States: a review of cases from 1966 to 2005. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007;161(11):1062-7. [PubMed]
24. Desai M, Kuile FO, Nosten F, McGready R, Asamoa K, Brabin B, Newman RD. Epidemiology and burden of malaria in pregnancy. The Lancet Infectious diseases.2007;7(2):93-104. [PubMed]
25. Veronica DP, Maurizio G, Alberto M, Vania S, Antonio R, Francesco C. Congenital Plasmodium vivax malaria mimicking neonatal sepsis: a case report.Malar J. 2010; 9: 63. [PubMed]
26. Lee WW, Singh M, Tan CL. A recent case of congenital malaria in Singapore. Singapore Med J. 1996;37:541–543. [PubMed]
27. Wivanitkit V. Congenital malaria in Thailand, an appraisal of previous cases. Pediatrics Intnl. 2006;48:562–565. [PubMed]
28. Castellanos ME, Bardají A, Menegon M, Mayor A, Desai M, Severini C, Menéndez C, Padilla N. Plasmodium vivax congenital malaria in an area of very low endemicity in Guatemala: implications for clinical and epidemiological surveillance in a malaria elimination context. Malar J. 2012 ;11(1):411.
29. Sotimehin SA, Runsewe-Abiodun TI, Oladapo OT, Njokanma OF, Olanrewaju DM. Possible risk factors for congenital malaria at a tertiary care hospital in Sagamu, Ogun state, southwest Nigeria. J Trop Pediatr. 2008;54(5):313–20. [PubMed]
30. Nosten F, McGready R, Simpson JA, Thwai KL, Balkan S, Cho Thei, Hkirijaroen L, Looareesuwan S, White NJ. Effects of Plasmodium vivax malaria in pregnancy. Lancet. 1999;354:546–549. [PubMed]
31. De Silva DHG, Mendis MN, Premratne UN, Jayatilleke S, Soyza PE. Congenital malaria due to Plasmodium vivax: a case report from Sri Lanka. Trans of the Royal Soc of Trop Med and Hyg.1982;76(1):33-35. [PubMed]
32. Miller IJ, Telford SR III. Placental malaria. N Eng J Med. 1996;335:98. [PubMed]
33.Wilson RJ, Pasvol G, Weatherall DJ. Invasion and growth of Plasmodium falciparum in different types of human erythrocyte. Bull World Health Organ. 1977;55:179–186. [PubMed]
34. Kakkilaya BS. Malaria and pregnancy. 2009, http://www.malariasite.com
35. Thapa BR, Narang A, Bhakoo ON. Neonatal malaria: A clinical study of congenital and transfusional malaria. J Trop Paediatr. 1987;33(5):266–68. [PubMed]
36. Voittier G, Arsac M, Farnoux C, Mariani-Kurdjian P, Baud O, Aujard Y. Congenital malaria in neonates: two case report and review of literature. Paediatrica. 2008;97:500–512.
37. Lesko CR, Arguin PM, Newman RD. Congenital malaria in the United States. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007;161:1062–1067. [PubMed]
38. Baspinar O, Bayraktaroglu Z, Karsligil T, Bayram A, Coscun Y. A rare case of anemia and thrombocytopenia in a newborn: congenital malaria. Turk Journ Pediatr. 2006;48:63–658. [PubMed]
39. D Alessandro U, Ubben D, Hamed K, Ceesay SJ, Okebe J, Taal M, Lama EK, Keita M, Koivogui L, Nahum A, Bojang K, Sonko AA, Lalya HF, Brabin B. Malaria in infants aged less than six months - is it an area of unmet medical need? Malar J. 2012 ;11(1):400. [PubMed]
40. Hagmann S, Khanna K, Niazi M, Purswani M, Robins EB. Congenital malaria, an important differential diagnosis to consider when evaluating febrile infants of immigrant mothers. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2007;23(5):326-9.
41. Valecha N, Bhatia S, Mehta S, Sukla B, Dash AP. Congenital malaria with atypical presentation: A case report from low transmission area in India.Malar J. 2007; 6: [PubMed]
42. Balaka B, Agbere AD, Bonkoungou P, Kessie K, Assimadi K, Agbo K. Congenital malarial disease due to Plasmodium falciparum in high-infection-risk newborn.Arch Pediatr. 2000;7(3):243-8. [PubMed]
43. Patwari A. Aneja S, Berry AM. Ghosh S. Neonatal mailairiai-a clinico-haematological profile. Itidiati Pediatr 1978;15/10:847-9. [PubMed]
44. Yeager AS. In: Rcmington JS. Klcin JO, cds. Infecious diseases of the fetus and newborn 2nd ed. Philaidelphia: W B Saunders. 1984;563-6.
45. M Davenport. Neonatal malaria and obstructive jaundice.Departmnent of Paediatric Surgery, Leeds General Infirmary.Archives of Disease in Childhood, 1986;61:516.
46. Hewson MP, Simmer K, Blackmore T. Congenital malaria in a preterm infant. J Paediatr Child Health. 2003;39(9):713-5. [PubMed]
47. Poespoprodjo JR, Fobia W, Kenangalem E, Lampah DA, Hasanuddin A, Warikar N, Sugiarto P, Tjitra E, Anstey NM, Price RN. Vivax malaria: a major cause of morbidity in early infancy. Clin Infect Dis. 2009 ;48(12):1704-12. [PubMed]
48. López-Antuñano F. In: Diagnóstico de malaria. López-Antuñano FJ, Schmunis G, editors. Washington DC: WHO-PAHO; 1988. pp. 39–50.
49. Makler M, Palmer C, Ager A. A review of practical techniques for the diagnosis of malaria. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1998;92:419–433. [PubMed]
50. PAHO Pan American Health Organization. Malaria in the Americas. PAHO Bull. 1996;17:1–18.
51. Ivón M. C, Mary L. U, Carolina C, Alexander FG, Jaime CF, and Amanda M. Diagnosis of Gestational, Congenital, and Placental Malaria in Colombia: Comparison of the Efficacy of Microscopy, Nested Polymerase Chain Reaction, and Histopathology. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2011; 84(6): 929–935.
52. Snounou G, Viriyakosol S, Zhu X, Jarra W, Pinheiro L, Do Rosario V, Thaithong S, Brown K. High sensitivity of detection of human malaria parasites by the use of nested polymerase chain reaction. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 1993;61:315–320. [PubMed]
53. Hanscheid T. Diagnosis of malaria: a review of alternatives to conventional microscopy. Clin Lab Haematol. 1999;21:235–245. [PubMed]
54. Rogerson S, Mkundika P, Kanjala M. Diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum malaria at delivery: comparison of blood film preparation methods and of blood films with histology. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:1370–1374. [PubMed]
55. Bulmer J, Rasheed F, Francis N, Morrison L, Greenwoods B. Placental malaria. I. Pathological classification. Histopathology. 1993;22:211–218. [PubMed]
56. Bulmer J, Rasheed F, Morrison L, Francis N, Greenwood B. Placental malaria. II. A semi-quantitative investigation of the pathological features. Histopathology. 1993;22:219–225.
57. Lucchi N, Demas A, Narayanan J, Sumari D, Kabanywanyi A, Kachur S, Barnwell J, Udhayakumar V. Real-time fluorescence loop mediated isothermal amplification for the diagnosis of malaria. PLoS One. 2010;5:e13733. [PubMed]
58. Han E, Watanabe R, Sattabongkot J, Khuntirat B, Sirichaisinthop J, Iriko H, Jin L, Takeo S, Tsuboi T. Detection of four Plasmodium species by genus- and species-specific Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification for clinical diagnosis. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45:2521–2528.
59. Paris D, Imwong M, Faiz A, Hasan M, Yunus E, Silamut K, Lee S, Day N, Dondorp A. Loop-mediated isothermal PCR (LAMP) for the diagnosis of falciparum malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007;77:972–976. [PubMed]
60. Poon L, Wong B, Ma E, Chan Q, Chow L, Abeyewickreme W, Tangpukdee N, Yuen K, Guan Y, Looareesuwan S, Peiris J. Sensitive and inexpensive molecular test for falciparum malaria: detecting Plasmodium falciparum DNA directly from heat-treated blood by loop-mediated isothermal amplification. Clin Chem. 2006;52:303–306.
61. Snounou G. Rapid, sensitive and cheap molecular diagnosis of malaria: is microscopy on the way out? Future Microbiol. 2007;2:477–480. [PubMed]
62. Hindi RD, Azimi PH. Congenital malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum. Pediatrics. 1980;66(6):977-9. [PubMed]
63. Shulman CE, Dorman EK. Importance and prevention of malaria in pregnancy.Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2003;97(1):30-5. [PubMed]
64. World Malaria Report (WHO). 2011;35.
65. GHS/NMCP/Global Fund/JHPIEGO, author. Intermittent Preventive Treatment (IPT) of malaria in pregnancy. 2005 May;29–31.
66. Fischer PR, Nyirjesy P, Toko RM. Congenital malaria in twins. West J Med. 1995;163:395–396. [PubMed]
67. Hailegiorgis B, Girma S, Melaku Z, Teshi T, Demeke L, Gebresellasie S, Yadeta D, Tibesso G, Whitehurst N, Yamo E, Carter J, Reithinger R. Laboratory malaria diagnostic capacity in health facilities in five administrative zones of oromia regional state. Ethiopia. Trop Med Int Health. 2010;15:1449–1457.
68. Ishengoma DR, Derua YA, Rwegoshora RT, Tenu F, Massaga JJ, Mboera LE, Magesa SM. The performance of health laboratories and the quality of malaria diagnosis in six districts of Tanzania. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2010;104:123–135. [PubMed]
69. Uneke CJ. Congenital Plasmodium falciparum malaria in sub-Saharan Africa: a rarity or frequent occurrence? Parasitol Res. 2007;101:835–842. [PubMed]
70. Joffe A., Jadavji T : Congenital malaria : A case report of a preventable disease.Pedatr.Infect.Dis.J. 1990; 9:522-523. [PubMed]
71. Olabisi A.,G.C.Ejezie,Friday A .Odey,Chioma M.Congenital malaria in Calabar,Nigeria:The molecular perspective.Am J Trop Med Hyg.2011;84(3):386-389.
CITATION
DOI: 10.17511/ijmrr.2013.i04.12
Published: 2013-10-31
How to Cite
1.
Chandra Mandliya J, Gupta R. Congenital malaria: Is it really rare?. Int J Med Res Rev [Internet]. 2013Oct.31 [cited 2024Dec.23];1(4):195-02. Available from: https://ijmrr.medresearch.in/index.php/ijmrr/article/view/36
Section
Review Article
OAI - Open Archives Initiative
